Factors Causing Abusive Behaviour

Factors Causing Abusive Behaviour Discuss the pathways that lead to a child becoming an abuser Introduction Abuse can take many forms, including physical, sexual, psychological or financial[1]. It can also be verbal and emotional[2]. There are frequently difficulties associated with defining abuse[3], which exists within social, cultural and legal parameters; for example using physical chastisement with children in some cultures is considered to be the norm[4]. In the UK, while the use of implements to hit children has been made illegal[5], the debate about smacking continues; it is still permissible to use ‘reasonable chastisement’[6], although there has been criticism of this from such agencies as the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC) who assert that any form of physical punishment should be outlawed. Physical abuse is more comprehensively defined as: †¦hitting, shaking, throwing, poisoning, burning, scalding, drowning, suffocating or otherwise causing physical harm†¦(p. 533)[7] The definition of sexual abuse varies according to the nature of the victim (for example in relation to child sexual abuse); however a broad definition is that it involves the misuse of power, which might be combined with the use of force, to gain sexual gratification from a vulnerable person[8] Psychological and emotional abuse have some similarities, however psychological abuse is distinguishable from emotional abuse in that it results in some form of cognitive or mental impairment[9] whereas emotional abuse is, arguably, more difficult to quantify as there is a degree of subjectivity involved; however it has been described as the use of one or more of the following behaviours: humiliation, harassment, verbal abuse, demonstrating jealous and possessive behaviour, using threats, abandonment, destruction or removal of items that are important to the recipient, using controlling behaviour (for example within a relationship) and undermining someone with a view to lowering their self- esteem[10] Financial abuse is defined as: The intentional or opportunistic appropriation of the income, capital or property of a vulnerable person through theft, fraud, deception, undue influence or exploitation†¦ (p. 17).[11] Verbal abuse is frequently a component of other types of abuse; for example psychological and emotional abuse is likely to involve verbal abuse, which essentially, is the use of language which is disrespectful and hurtful to the recipient[12]. A complex form of abuse arises from Munchausen syndrome by Proxy[13]. This involves a parent or care- giver (most frequently the mother) giving an often plausible impression to health practitioners that a child is ill, by falsifying symptoms, providing false specimens, administering substances which affect the child’s health, or by inflicting wounds or interfering with existing injuries. Quite often the mother has some health care experience so is equipped with the knowledge to inform her actions, and is also able to feign concern while at the same time giving the impression of being pleasant and cooperative. Inevitably the child is likely to suffer unnecessary distress, pain and discomfort and as such the effect of this syndrome is considered to be a form of child abuse, involving as it does physical, psychological and emotional harm. Health professionals may unwittingly be complicit in the abuse by conducting investigations and invasive procedures which can cause further dis tress[14]. The mother is motivated by her own psychological needs for attention and a sense of worth. The reasons why somebody should develop this syndrome are not clear, and various theories of causation have been put forward, such as personality disorder, depressive illness, emotional disturbance and substance abuse[15]. Some sources report that the mother herself may have been abused as a child[16]. If this is the case then this could be one explanation for why a child becomes an abuser. There are various manifestations of abuse within the context of this question. Some children demonstrate abusive behaviour while still in their childhood[17]; a notorious and extreme example of this is the murder of two- year old James Bulger by two ten year old boys in 1993[18]. Other children go on to display abusive behaviour during their adolescence[19],[20],[21] while in other people, abusive behaviour does not emerge until adulthood despite it being possible to trace influential factors back to their childhood[22] The abused who becomes the abuser It is a widely held assumption that people who become abusers, were abused themselves and indeed there is evidence to support this contention[23],[24] . Children who grow up within an abusive environment are three times more likely to become abusers, however it also important to acknowledge that not all children who have been abused go on to become abusers[25]. It would appear that it is more likely for abused children to become abusers if they grow up within an environment where multifactorial influences are present such as a family history of violence, sexual abuse by a female, maternal neglect and lack of supervision[26],[27] . It is important to gain an understanding of why children who have been abused might themselves become abusers, as these factors can be addressed as part of a preventative strategy (breaking the cycle of abuse). Firstly there is evidence that there may be intergenerational transmission of parenting style, whether good or bad; the child simply goes on to prac tice what they have absorbed as a child, some of which might be on an unconscious level[28] . It is also possible that the person is left with feelings of rage, anger and resentment from having been abused and the disempowering effect that this has had on them. They might go on to project these feelings onto a more vulnerable person than they such as a child; using them to vent their feelings manifested as a form of abuse. The person who was abused as a child might feel angry if they are unable to punish or hurt the perpetrator of their abuse and instead might turn on a substitute who becomes the object of their frustrations[29],[30]. They might even use the victim of their abuse as a means of offloading the residual emotions they have as a result of their own experiences of abuse. Ward and Siegert’s pathways model[31] reflects the terminology within the title and offers some explanations for the reasons that people go on to commit sexual abuse, specifically. There are five pathways within this model: intimacy and social skills deficits; deviant sexual scripts; emotional dysregulation; anti- social cognitions and multiple dysfunctional mechanisms. These are relevant to the question because the origin of sexually abusive behaviour is linked to early life experiences within at least three of these pathways; it is the manifestation of the behaviours that varies. Intimacy and social skills deficits are associated with childhood experiences of abuse and neglect and insecure attachment relationships with adults. .Elsewhere attachment deficit has been cited as a cause of violent behaviour in adulthood towards a partner, which is associated with fear of abandonment[32]. The deviant sexual scripts pathway is explained by the experience of childhood sexual abuse; the individual’s ‘sexual script’ reflecting their past experience. Multiple dysfunctional mechanisms are said to develop from childhood experiences of sexual victimisation or early exposure to sexual behaviour and/ or material. The value of this model has been identified as offering a framework for appropriate treatment for sex offenders, as the underlying reason for the behaviour can be identified and addressed[33]. Psychosocial factors Psychosocial factors such as parental loss due to death, separation or divorce have been linked with children becoming abusers[34]; however the likelihood of this occurring is increased if there are multiple factors involved, as indicated on p. 4, para. 1. It is also possible that the child who has not been directly abused themselves, but has witnessed violence at close quarters, for example their mother being abused by their father, learns that violence is an appropriate behaviour in relation to the resolution of conflict[35]. However it could be argued that exposing children to such behaviour in itself constitutes a form of abuse, as it is distressing and can have long- term psychological effects. In relation to exposure to violence, there is a body of evidence to link the relationship between playing violent video games, and watching violent films, with an increase in aggressive behaviour[36],[37] . A link was made between the killing of James Bulger (referred to above on p. 3, pa ra. 2) and the influence of video violence, although there were also several other proposed causes for the incident[38]. There are also links made between socioeconomic factors and the incidence of abuse[39],[40], however once again there are likely to be other, interrelated contributory factors, such as unemployment and alcohol or drug abuse. Conclusion An extensive review of the literature yields a compelling argument that many abusers were themselves abused as children. However it is also clear that not all children who have been abused become abusers themselves. There are gaps in the literature in relation to examining the reasons why some individuals and not others, are able to turn away from the effects of abuse. It would appear that the reasons why a child becomes an abuser are complex and multifactorial; it has been suggested at several points in this essay that the effects of one single causative factor can be strengthened by the presence of other negative factors. In summary, the factors that might cause a child to become an abuser include: being the victim of abuse, be it physical, sexual, emotional or a combination of one or more types; being exposed to violent behaviour (for example between parents); exposure to materials that depict violence, such as magazines, films and video games; emotional deprivation leading to att achment deficit; loss of a parent; exposure to sexually explicit materials and/ or behaviour; neglect; the abuse of alcohol and/ or drugs within the home; poverty and a lack of (non- abusive) discipline and guidance. References Abuse definitions and symptoms. Verbal Abuse. http://www.nemasys.com/ghostwolf/Resources/abusedef.shtml 2004 Accessed: 1st February 2007. Adshead G and Brooke D (eds.) Munchausen’s syndrome by proxy: current issues in assessment, treatment and research. Imperial College Press 2001. Bagley C. Child Abusers: Research and Treatment. Universal Publishers. 2003. p.2 bbc.co.uk. 1993: Two boys charged with toddlers murder. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/20/newsid_2552000/2552185.stm. Accessed: 1st February 2007. bbc.co.uk. New smacking law comes into force. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4175905.stm 2005. Accessed: 1st February 2007. Boyles S. Do Sexually Abused Kids Become Abusers? WebMD. http://www.webmd.com/content/article/60/67158.htm 2003 Accessed: 31 January 2007. Brogden M and Nijhar P Crime, Abuse and the Elderly. Willan Publishing. 2000. p. 44 Brown S. Treating Sex Offenders: an introduction to sex offender treatment programmes. Willan Publishing. 2005. p. 93. Cannon M. Invited commentaries on: Cycle of child sexual abuse: links between being a victim and becoming a perpetrator. The British Journal of Psychiatry 179 2001 pp. 495-496 Cardwell M and Flanagan C Psychology A2. Nelson Thornes. 2003. p. 53 Catherall D. The Handbook of Stress, Trauma, and the Family. Routledge. 2004. p. 385. Cohle S and Byard R. Sudden Death in Infancy, Childhood and Adolescence. Cambridge University Press. 2004. p.138 Duncan K. Healing From The Trauma Of Childhood Sexual Abuse: the journey for women. Praeger/Greenwood 2004. p. 205. Elliot J and Place M. Children in Difficulty: A Guide to Understanding and Helping. Routledge 2004. pp. 110-111 Erooga M. Children and Young People Who Sexually Abuse Others: challenges and responses. Routledge 1999. Flowers R Domestic Crimes, Family Violence and Child Abuse: A Study of Contemporary American SocietyMcFarland Company. 2000. p. 14. Goodwin J. Munchausen’s Syndrome as a dissociative disorder. https://scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/dspace/bitstream/1794/1331/1/Diss_1_1_6_OCR.pdf Accessed: 2nd February 2007 Greer S. Territorial Politics and Health Policy: UK Health Policy in Comparative Perspective. Manchester University Press. 2005. p.59 Hagell A Jeyarajah-Dent R Children Who Commit Acts of Serious Interpersonal Violence: Messages for Practice. Jessica Kinglsey publishers. 2006. p. 75. Hill M and Lockyer A. Youth Justice and Child Protection. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. 2006. p.124. Hines D and Malley- Morrison K. Family Violence in a Cultural Perspective. Sage Publications. 2004. pp. 4, 49. Horton I and Feltham C. The Sage Handbook of Counselling And Psychotherapy. Sage Publicaiotns 2006. p. 464. Itzin C. Home truths about child sexual abuse: a reader. Routledge 2000. p.222. Kandel Englander, E. Understanding violence. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 2002. p.11 Knauer S. Recovering from Sexual Abuse, Addictions, and Compulsive Behaviors: Numb Survivors. Haworth Press. 2002. pp. 146-7 Krahe B. The Social Psychology of Aggression. Psychology Press (UK). 2001. p. 161. Marshall W, O’Reilly G, Carr A and Beckett R. Handbook of Clinical Intervention with Young People Who Sexually Abuse. Psychology Press. 2004. pp. 47-50 Macleod-Brudene I. Advanced Early Years Care and Education: For Levels 4 and 5. Harcourt Heinemann. 2004. p. 397 McAuley C, Pecora P and Rose W. Enhancing the Well Being of Children And Families Through Effective Interventions. Jessica Kingsley Publishers 2006. p. 144. Mukherji P. Understanding Childrens Challenging Behaviour. Nelson Thornes 2001. p. 58. National Audit Office. protecting and promoting the financial affairs of people who lose mental capacity. The Stationery Office. 2005. p. 17. Plat- Jones J. Domestic violence: the role of health professionals. Nursing Standard. 21(14-15-16) 2006pp. 44-48 Reference.com. James Bulger. http://www.reference.com/browse/wiki/James_Bulger. Accessed: 1st February 2007 Sigelman C and Rider E. Life- span Human Development. Thomson Wadsworth. 2005. p. 449 Skuse D and Bouvier P. Risk of sexually abused children becoming adult abusers lower than once thought. The Lancet February 2003. Stosny S. Treating Attachment Abuse: A Compassionate ApproachSpringer Publishing 1995. pp. 42-44. Tilley N. Handbook Of Crime Prevention And Community Safety. Willan Publishing. 2005. p. 533 Wilson R. Fabricated or induced illness in children. British Medical Journal. 323. 2001. pp. 296-297 Total word count (does not include footnotes) 2253 1 Footnotes [1]Brogden M and Nijhar P Crime, Abuse and the Elderly. Willan Publishing. 2000. p. 44 [2] Flowers R Domestic Crimes, Family Violence and Child Abuse: A Study of Contemporary American SocietyMcFarland Company. 2000. p. 14. [3],10Hines D and Malley- Morrison K. Family Violence in a Cultural Perspective. Sage Publications. 2004. pp. 4, 49 [4] Mukherji P. Understanding Childrens Challenging Behaviour. Nelson Thornes 2001. p. 58. [5] Macleod-Brudene I. Advanced Early Years Care and Education: For Levels 4 and 5. Harcourt Heinemann. 2004. p. 397. [6] bbc.co.uk. New smacking law comes into force. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4175905.stm 2005. Accessed: 1st February 2007. [7] Tilley N. Handbook Of Crime Prevention And Community Safety. Willan Publishing. 2005. p. 533. [8] Horton I and Feltham C. The Sage Handbook of Counselling And Psychotherapy. Sage Publicaiotns 2006. p. 464. [9] Krahe B. The Social Psychology of Aggression. Psychology Press (UK). 2001. p. 161. [10] [11] National Audit Office. protecting and promoting the financial affairs of people who lose mental capacity. The Stationery Office. 2005. p. 17. [12] Abuse definitions and symptoms. Verbal Abuse. http://www.nemasys.com/ghostwolf/Resources/abusedef.shtml 2004 Accessed: 1st February 2007. [13] Adshead G and Brooke D (eds.) Munchausen’s syndrome by proxy: current issues in assessment , treatment and research. Imperial College Press 2001. [14] Wilson R. Fabricated or induced illness in children. British Medical Journal. 323. 2001. pp. 296-297. [15] Cohle S and Byard R. Sudden Death in Infancy, Childhood and Adolescence. Cambridge University Press. 2004. p.138 [16] Goodwin J. Munchausen’s Syndrome as a dissociative disorder. https://scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/dspace/bitstream/1794/1331/1/Diss_1_1_6_OCR.pdf Accessed: 2nd February 2007 [17] Erooga M. Children and Young People Who Sexually Abuse Others: challenges and responses. Routledge 1999. [18] bbc.co.uk. 1993: Two boys charged with toddlers murder. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/20/newsid_2552000/2552185.stm. Accessed 1st February 2007. [19], 23Hagell A Jeyarajah-Dent R Children Who Commit Acts of Serious Interpersonal Violence: Messages for Practice. Jessica Kinglsey publishers. 2006. p. 75. [20] Elliot J and Place M. Children in Difficulty: A Guide to Understanding and Helping. Routledge 2004. pp. 110-111 [21] Itzin C. Home truths about child sexual abuse: a reader. Routledge 2000. p.222. [22] Bagley C. Child Abusers: Research and Treatment. Universal Publishers. 2003. p.2 [23] [24] McAuley C, Pecora P and Rose W. Enhancing the Well Being of Children And Families Through Effective Interventions. Jessica Kingsley Publishers 2006. p. 144. [25],26 Boyles S. Do Sexually Abused Kids Become Abusers? WebMD. http://www.webmd.com/content/article/60/67158.htm 2003. Accessed: 31 January 2007. [26] [27] Skuse D and Bouvier P. Risk of sexually abused children becoming adult abusers lower than once thought. The Lancet February 2003. [28] Sigelman C and Rider E. Life- span Human Development. Thomson Wadsworth. 2005. p. 449 [29] Duncan K. Healing From The Trauma Of Childhood Sexual Abuse: the journey for women. Praeger/Greenwood 2004. p. 205. [30] Knauer S. Recovering from Sexual Abuse, Addictions, and Compulsive Behaviours: Numb Survivors. Haworth Press. 2002. pp. 146-7 [31] Marshall W, O’Reilly G, Carr A and Beckett R. Handbook of Clinical Intervention with Young People Who Sexually Abuse. Psychology Press. 2004. pp. 47-50 [32] Stosny S. Treating Attachment Abuse: A Compassionate Approach. Springer Publishing 1995. pp. 42-44. [33] Brown S. Treating Sex Offenders: an introduction to sex offender treatment programmes. Willan Publishing. 2005. p. 93. [34] Cannon M. Invited commentaries on: Cycle of child sexual abuse: links between being a victim and becoming a perpetrator. The British Journal of Psychiatry 179 2001 pp. 495-496 [35] Plat- Jones J. Domestic violence: the role of health professionals. Nursing Standard. 21(14-15-16) 2006pp. 44-48 [36] Kandel Englander, E. Understanding violence. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 2002. p.11 [37] Cardwell M and Flanagan C Psychology A2. Nelson Thornes. 2003. p. 53. [38] Reference.com. James Bulger. http://www.reference.com/browse/wiki/James_Bulger. Accessed: 1st February 2007. [39] Hill M and Lockyer A. Youth Justice and Child Protection. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. 2006. p.124. [40] Greer S. Territorial Politics and Health Policy: UK Health Policy in Comparative Perspective. Manchester University Press. 2005. p.59.

Alice Walker Essay -- essays research papers

Alice Walker   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Alice Walker is an African American essayist, novelist and poet. She is described as a â€Å"black feminist.†(Ten on Ten) Alice Walker tries to incorporate the concepts of her heritage that are absent into her essays; such things as how women should be independent and find their special talent or art to make their life better. Throughout Walker’s essay entitled â€Å"In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens,† I determined there were three factors that aided Walker gain the concepts of her heritage which are through artistic ability, her foremothers and artistic models.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens† touches mainly upon family heritage and the way her heritage was created. In Atwan’s Ten on Ten, you will find the essay on the Mothers’ Gardens. On page 83 it states, â€Å"For they were going nowhere immediate, and the future was not yet within their grasp.† This quote signifies how mothers and grandmothers would always be set serving the men in their lives; for their entire lives, however, there was a different future, a plan that they didn’t see yet. This plan was for them to identify their artistic ability, whether if it was through singing, writing or making quilts.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout the essay, â€Å"In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens,†Alice Walker’s mentions her foremothers. Women like Jean Toomer, Phillis Wheatley and Zora Neale Hurtson, who were all either poets or writers. Mike Fike has also reco...

The Role of Mass Media in the World of Politics

The mass media plays a very important role in everyday life. It is often the only form of education which is available to some, and as such has a very powerful influence over people†s beliefs and opinions. This influence is never more evident than when analysing the relationship between the media and politics. Politics can justifiably be described as THE main determining factor in our lives, the major influence over many facets of day to day living, such as finances, healthcare and employment. The media is the major source of information about political affairs, and as such has control over what we actually know about the political system and what we may never find out. As a result of this, it becomes inevitable that the media has a certain ‘hold† over the political arena. The media can judge, approve and criticise. It can make or break political careers, even parties, and the information which the media provides helps the public to form attitudes, responses and opinions towards political events and actors. Thus it becomes very important for the political parties to keep the media ‘on-side†. It is obvious that the media does have some impact on politics, but the main question should be to what extent, how does it manifest itself and why should we care anyway? For the purpose of this essay the media will be described as the press, TV and radio. On the face of it the media is there simply to communicate, or act as a transmitter of information between the political world and the consumer. However, probably since the end of the second world war, it has become clear that the media can often have a hidden agenda when reporting politics. Indeed, one of the most contentious issues over the last few years, at least since I have been ‘consuming† media products, has been the debate over media ownership. This has been particularly evident in the press, the most notable case being the Rupert Murdoch 'empire† – News International. I will start off by discussing the case of the press, as I believe that this is traditionally where much of the impact on politics has occurred, although I will discuss later how this may be changing. One major area of concern about press reporting of politics is the apparent ‘dumbing down† of the coverage, even amongst the broadsheets, and the effect that this may have on politics. In 1993 Labour MP, and current Home Secretary, Jack Straw published a short research report into the press coverage of parliament, ( Negrine, 1998,p1). In doing the report he discovered how Parliamentary issues were now covered to a much lesser degree than in the past, going from between 400-800 lines per day in The Times in 1988, to fewer than 100 lines in 1992. This seemed to show that the broadsheets were following the tabloid example of dumbing down. This has led to the worry that the press is trivialising the political process in the UK. Politics is becoming increasingly personality led, rather than policy led. An event may have political significance or importance, but it will only really be seen as such if the press frames it in a way that makes it interesting and palatable to the reader. It therefore becomes a fact of political life that personalities are more interesting to the majority of the public than policies. This has inevitably led to a change in the political landscape, initiated and perpetuated by the media. There are now several key features to politics in the late twentieth century which were not there before. ‘Political marketing†, the use of ‘negative campaigning† and the introduction of spin doctors have all led to fear of an ‘Americanisation† of the political process. As well as the press, TV has played a major role in ushering in the age of the soundbite. The media has opened up a larger, more accessible audience to the politicians, which many of them find hard to resist. Institutions such as the House of Commons are becoming less and less a way of relaying policy issues and raising concerns, as the political arena is increasingly acted out in the media. Which publicity seeking politician, trying to gain support for their party, would choose the Commons over a highly publicised TV programme such as Question Time, or a high circulation newspaper such as The Sun. There has also been a decline in local party politics, as political communication has become more and more a national rather than local event. The American way of leader based, rather than party based politics has become a reality. This has been evident in the way that Tony Blair has become a media star, never more so than when his wife recently became pregnant. The celebrity image of the Prime Minister has also led to accusations that he lacks real political substance. Some would say another example of the ‘trivialising† of politics has been the introduction of TV cameras into the House of Commons. When it was first proposed in 1966 it was heavily defeated on the grounds that TV cameras would ruin the unique and intimate atmosphere of the house. In 1989 the house first appeared on television. Strict guidelines were issued over what could be shown, including the use of head and shoulder shots only and the banning of reaction shots. There was great unease amongst the sitting MPs, including the then Prime Minister Mrs Thatcher, who said at the time: â€Å".. if you are not careful you can freeze with TV there†¦. it is going to be a different House of Commons, but that is that†, (Politics UK, 1991, p208). There was a gradual thawing of hostile opinion towards the TV cameras, with some exceptions. David Amess, MP, protested that the cameras had managed to, â€Å".. trivialise our proceedings and spoil that very special atmosphere that we had here†, ( Politics UK, p208). The main political parties now recognise the crucial role the media has to play in their success and have reacted accordingly. Political strategies now incorporate media strategies. They try to manipulate the media in order to create a favourable image of themselves. In order to achieve this we have seen the introduction of professional media managers. The media dominated world of politics now needs professional management. Peter Mandelson and Alistair Campbell are two such media experts. They have been partly responsible for transforming the Labour Party from being unelectable to gaining a runaway victory in the 1997 general election. Indeed it has been said that Tony Blair spends more time in meetings with his image and media advisors than he spends discussing policies with his cabinet, which may be a worrying trend for UK politics. There are several ways that these people can attempt to manipulate the media. One such way, many would say to the detriment of the democratic process, is the manufacture of debates which are stage managed to ensure a friendly audience and the communication of well rehearsed answers. There is also a great deal of emphasis placed on image management, and specifically the image of the party leader. This is very evident when looking at the current leaders of the two main parties in the UK today. Despite the best attempts of Conservative central office to jazz up the image of William Hague, he still retains the image of a dull, almost incompetent twit. On the other hand Tony Blair has the image of a dynamic, if slightly shallow, leader. This tends to ignore the fact that Hague is possibly a more intelligent and thoughtful politician than Blair. Another good example of this is the differences between Ronald Reagan and Michael Foot. Reagan was a remarkably unskilled politician, but, being a trained actor, he was very good at conveying what was essentially a simple message. Foot, on the other hand, was a very skilled politician and public speaker. However, his unkempt appearance was not at all media friendly, and after defeat in the 83 general election he was cast aside in favour of a more media friendly Neil Kinnock. Reagan had two successful terms as US President. Many fear that this indicates a move away from real political issues towards a fickle political world where image is everything and political substance nothing. It is clear that a personality clash or a sex scandal can now be more damaging to a political party than an actual policy disagreement. But should we be very concerned about this, and exactly how much of the shifting political tide is down to the media. Some observers point to the fact that plain, unassuming politicians such as John Major and George Bush have enjoyed immensely successful political careers. This may suggest that the public can only be fooled to a certain degree by slick media management, and may eventually get sick of being ‘force fed† so called perfect politicians, with little or no political ability.

African-American History and Women Timeline (1930-1939)